Research

// intelligence and IQ

// factors influencing IQ test scores

According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, “Intelligence tests predict only about 10% of the variation in real life success” (Epstein, 1999).

Sternberg: “Kids who are white and upper middle class and go to so-called “good schools” tend to perform best on analytical portions of IQ tests. But the students who do well on the creative and practical sections are much more diverse ethnically, socioeconomically and educationally” and “Our research has shown that all three kinds of abilities-academic, creative and practical-can be improved. Abilities are modifiable, flexible. When we give a test, the result isn’t indelible; rather, it says where you are now. basis for where you can go” (Epstein, 1999).

Quotes from Frank Miele’s
Skeptic Magazine
interview with Robert Sternberg:

When I was very young, I did poorly on IQ tests because I was test anxious. The result was that teachers had low expectations for me and I wanted to please my teachers. So I met their low expectations… I got over my test anxiety and then did extremely well on tests. All of a sudden the expectations were high. To a large extent it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy, either way.
To a large extent, intelligence is our own creation. It is a creation to describe the fact that in terms of adaptive skills, some people have more than others. I think that knowledge is something you pick up from the environment… The tests of tacit knowledge that we use to measure practical intelligence measure what you know.
(One study) found that kids that were placed in Iranian orphanages, almost without exception, were mentally retarded, whereas the children who were quickly adopted before the age of two scored at normal levels on intelligence tests, roughly a 50-point difference in obtained IQ.
Marian Diamond performed studies on brain mass in rats and found that if you give them an enriched environment, it affects the brain, which becomes heavier and more convoluted.
Some years back in the early 1980s the government of Venezuela initiated a country-wide drive to improve the intellectual abilities of the children… They published the results in American Psychologist, which is a leading psychological journal, showing that there had been significant and impressive gains in IQ.

"http://www.fpg.unc.edu/%7Eabc/"
target="_new">The Carolina Abecedarian Project
(more information to follow)

I think it’s hard to maintain
the IQ gains. But if you think environment is important
in the development of intelligence, and you put people in
a really good program and you raise their IQ, and then
take them out of the program and put them back in the
poor environment in which they started, chances are you
are going to lose a lot of the beneficial
effect.

Early childhood IQs do not
predict anything accurately. By around the age of eight,
when IQ becomes stable, you are predicting about 50% of
the variation in adult IQ.

(A)lmost any access route to
the high-paying occupations requires you to do well on
these tests (SAT, GRE, GMAT, etc.). That will
artificially and spuriously create the correlation
between high scores and entering into top
jobs.

From "http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/bellcurve.html"
target="_new">Leon Kamin’s commentary on The Bell
Curve controversy:

“(E)xtensive practice at
reading and calculating does affect, very directly,
one’s IQ score.”
Stephen Ceci, Ph.D. of Cornell
University: “At the very least, intelligence can be
defined as the ability for complex thinking and
reasoning. One thing the research shows for sure: much
of the ability for complex reasoning depends on the
situationÖ knowledge is organized in the mind
differently in different domains.” According to Ceci’s
review of research literature (Ceci, 2001):
IQ is modestly related to the
speed at which you do some pretty simple
things
Modern neuroimaging techniques
demonstrate that cranial volume is correlated with
IQ… The correlations, however, are quite
small
Even when researchers control
for such factors (the amount of time mother and child
spend together through nursing and the sense of closeness
they gain from nursing), there still appears to be a gain
of 3 to 8 IQ points for breast-fed children by age
three
A study conducted by London
Board of Education revealed that the IQ of children in
the same family decreased from the youngest to the
oldest… This suggests that factors other than heredity
are at work. The older children progressively missed
more school, and their IQs plummeted as a
result
For each year of schooling
completed, there is an IQ gain of approximately 3.5
points
For each year of delayed
schooling, the children experienced a decrement of
five IQ points
In a large-scale study, 10% of
all males in the Swedish school population born in 1948
were randomly selected and given an IQ test at age 13.
Upon reaching age 18 (in 1966), 4,616 of them were tested
again. For each year of high school not completed,
there was a loss of 1.8 IQ points
Two independent studies have
documented that there is a systematic decline in IQ
scores over the summer months. With each passing
month away from school, children lose ground from their
end-of-year scores
Even among those with
comparable levels of schooling, the greater a person’s
intellectual ability, the higher that person’s weekly
earnings
Intelligence is context
dependent: experts were always better at reasoning
complexly than non-experts, regardless of their IQ
scores
Regarding the Flynn
Effect: The rise in IQ suggests that whatever it is
that IQ tests test, it is not some inherent quality of
the mind.
In one large-scale analysis of
approximately 1 million students enrolled in the New York
City school system, researchers found a 14% improvement
in IQ scores after the removal of preservatives, dyes,
colorings and artificial flavors from lunch
offerings

Research lead by Joseph Lee
Rodgers, Ph.D. of the University of Oklahoma and published
in American Psychologist, asserts that there is “no direct
link between birth order and intelligence” nor is
their evidence that big families produce less intelligent
children (Rogers, 2000).

A study by University of Wisconsin
researchers of 600 fourth-graders judged to be at high
risk for delinquency and reported in ‘Journal of
Abnormal Psychology,’ Vol. 102, No. 2: “Delinquents score
an average of eight points lower on IQ tests than their
non-delinquent peers… Students with low IQs are less
likely to succeed in school and therefore less likely to
respect the school as a bastion of authority. So they don’t
buy into the value system teachers are trying to transmit”
(Psychology Today, 1994).

“Consider music as a sort
of pre-language which, at an early age, excites the
inherent brain patterns and enhances their use in other
higher cognitive functions,” says neurobiologist Frances
Rauscher, Ph.D.

// the flynn effect: (IQ scores have been steadily increasing about 3-6 points per decade)

James Flynn: extemporaneous talking leads to creative thinking and new ideas.

In The Rising Curve, Ulric
Neisser of Cornell University reviews the Flynn effect and
the various explanations for it–including better nutrition
and parenting, more extensive schooling, improved
test-taking ability, and the impact of the visual and
spatial demands that accompany a television-laden,
video-game-rich world.

Flynn “decided to follow up with a
short monograph on military intelligence tests, because he
had a hunch the data had been mishandled and that, in fact,
black recruits were making large IQ gains on whites–a
trend that would support Flynn’s conviction that IQ was
linked more to environmental factors than to genetic
ones.”

“While the book acknowledges that
no one knows why test scores are rising, Flynn argues in
one chapter that environmental factors must be
responsible for the trend.” - "http://www.apa.org/monitor/apr98/intell.html"
target="_blank">APA Monitor

face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> id="brain">// the brain

Christopher Wills, in his book
"http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0465031315/qid=1040616985/sr=8-1/ref=sr_8_1/102-2062254-4184931?v=glance&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;s=books&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;n=507846"
target="_new">The Runaway Brain, suggests
that larger brain size is associated with:

increased capacity to handle
sensory information
increased
flexibility
decreased predictability in
behavior

According to new findings
described by "http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0007B7DC-6738-1DC9-AF71809EC588EEDF&amp;pageNumber=1&amp;catID=2"
target="_new">William Leonard in the December 2002 issue
of Scientific American:

From a nutritional perspective,
what is extraordinary about our large brain is how much
energy it consumes–roughly 16 times as much as muscle
tissue per unit weight… In fact, at rest brain
metabolism accounts for a whopping 20 to 25 percent of an
adult human’s energy needs–far more than the 8
to 10 percent observed in nonhuman primates.

Leonard suggest that the dramatic
increase in human brain size is primarily the result of
three factors, directly or indirectly related to food
consumption:

Diet (40 to 60 percent
derived from energy- and nutrient-rich animal foods for
human ancestors versus 5 to 7 percent for modern
chimps)
Bipedalism (35 percent
more efficient than simian quadrapedalism and leading to
“an 8 to 10-fold increase in home range size when
compared with that of the late
autralopithecenes”)
Complex social
interactions required for cooperative behavior that
improved hunting and foraging tactics and, in turn, led
to improved diet

According to "http://www.sciam.com/askexpert_question.cfm?articleID=0001E851-65EB-1C72-9EB7809EC588F2D7&catID=3"
target="_new">an article by Kwan Lowe quoting biologist
Paul Grobstein of Bryn Mawr College:

The latter innovation would then, in turn, exert selection pressure for increased brain size on other animals, whose survival relates to, among other things, their ability to predict behavior. These resulting increases in brain size would, of course, generate pressure for further increases in brain size. It is because of this positive feedback loop that Wills refers to the ‘runaway brain.’ I suspect that unpredictability in behavior is not the first thought that comes to mind when people hear the terms “intelligence” or “cognitive ability,” but variability may in fact be an important component of what we mean by those terms.

In Jeffery Satinover’s book The Quantum Brain, “All computation consists of the elementary logical operations strung together.” The three basic operations are:

AND
OR (inclusive OR)
NOT

Two other elementary operations are derived from combinations of the three basic ones:

XOR (exclusive OR) = (NOT(A AND B) AND (NOT(NOT A AND NOT B))
If and only if = NOT XOR

According to Satinover, “String a batch of NOT XOR nets together and you have a device that not only can carry out higher-order logical operations as instructed, it can search out the necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be true, on its own, and no matter how complex, whether the human designers of the net have discovered these conditions for themselves or not” (pages 30-32).

// education and training

Interesting thoughts from a Psychology Today interview with pediatrician and author Mel Levine (Gorrell, 2002):

The eight neurodevelopmental constructs that affect learning: attention, language, memory, neuromotorfunction, spatial ordering, temporal-sequential ordering, higher-order cognition and social cognition
Throw away labels: “Labels oversimplify kids–they don’t take into account a child’s strengths. Labels are pessimistic because they imply you’re always going to be one way.”
Build on strengths: “Optimism, strengths, possibilities–we’re trying to use a much less pathological view. We substitute description for labeling–rich description with much greater specificity about where the breakdown is occurring.”
Actively involve the child as a participant: “Routinely, people never bother to ask the kid to be part of the diagnostic team… A lot of what we advocate involves helping a kid understand himself.”

“It’s remarkable what kids come up with themselves once they have a clear understanding of what they need to do.”
Question authority: “(We seek to) educate parents so they can be tougher consumers of their kids’ education and testing, as opposed to having blind faith.”

“As far back as 1984, ASTD informed us that more than 80 percent of what people learn is through informal means, less than 20 percent of what people learn is through formal instruction on which workplace educators spend so much time and money. That’s confirmed by recent research by the Educational Development Center, indicating that 70 to 80 percent of learning occurs informally through processes that aren’t structured or sponsored by the organization” (Weintraub and Martineau, 2002).

“Learning is primarily the result of experience, collaboration, observation and reading” (Weintraub and Martineau, 2002).

Participants who complete instructor-lead training forget 35-90% of the material within three days (Arch, 2002). The fact that participants forget is not the problem; the problem is that the forgotten information is taught in the first place.

“Many courses take too long to develop and deliver, or much of the knowledge conveyed by those courses is already known by the learners or irrelevant to them” (Weintraub and Martineau, 2002).

// education and technology

Writing about the $350 billion education, author Julie Landry asserts, “(A)fter hundreds of exhaustive studies, there remains no conclusive proof that technology in the classroom actually helps to teach students. In fact, in some cases it hinders learning” despite the fact that “at least 50 cents of every dollar spent on educational supplies goes to technology” (Landry, 2002).

Although companies will spend more than $22 billion on computer-based training in 2002, most of these investments produce poor returns (ASTD, 2001).

90% of people who begin a computer-based module never complete that module (Corporate Executive Board, 2001).

“Bosses often find it difficult to accept employees doing something other than “real work” in their cubicles but don’t mind them being excused to attend a classroom-delivered course” (Segers, 2002).

// pygmalion and placebos

Research demonstrates that teacher’s expectations regarding the potential of elementary children resulted in different qualities of teacher-student interaction. Teachers reported that students with “high potential” were more appealing, more affectionate and better adjusted. In ‘Pygmalion in the Classroom’ (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), Rosenthal replies: “Such communication together with possible changes in teaching techniques may have helped the child learn by changing his self concept, his expectations of his own behavior, and his motivation, as well as his cognitive style and skills.” Most surprisingly, students in the “high potential” group showed an average IQ gain of two points in verbal ability, seven points in reasoning and four points in overall IQ. There was no difference in the amount of time the teachers spent with the students (Accel-Team, 2001).

In a meta-analysis of 17 relevant studies involving 2784 participants in work environments, employees reporting to supervisors with positive expectations regarding work potential responded with greater productivity than those reporting to supervisors with negative expectations (McNatt, 2000).

“Recent studies suggest that the placebo effect not only exists but may be caused by changes in the physiology of the brain” and “45% of sufferers (of depression) who improve on placebo exhibit clear changes in brain chemistry, not just altered perceptions” (Kaptchuk et. al., 2002).

“(S)cientists at the University of British Columbia found that placebos improved the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease in some subjects and that, in these individuals, increased amounts of dopamine were produced in the striatum of their brains” (Kaptchuk et. al., 2002).

“(W)hen physicians are hopeful and enthusiastic about the active treatment in a study, their patients are more responsive to placebo” (Kaptchuk et. al., 2002).

From target="_new">Against Depression, a Sugar Pill Is Hard to Beat by Shankar Vedantam (Washington Post: Tuesday, May 7, 2002):

Timothy Walsh, a psychiatrist at Columbia University, recently found that the placebo effect has grown in recent years. He found that greater percentages of people tended to get better on placebos during trials of antidepressants in 2000 than in 1981.
In January, Andrew Leuchter, a professor of psychiatry at UCLA, published a study in the American Journal of Psychiatry in which he tracked some of the brain changes associated with drugs such as Prozac and Effexor, which are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. When Leuchter compared the brain changes in patients on placebos, he was amazed to find that many of them had changes in the same parts of the brain, heightened activity in the prefrontal lobe, that are thought to control important facets of mood.
Seattle psychiatrist Arif Khan studied the placebo effect in trials submitted to the FDA. His analysis of 96 antidepressant trials between 1979 and 1996 showed that in 52 percent of them, the effect of the antidepressant could not be distinguished from that of the placebo.
Findings from a trial last month compared the herbal remedy St. John’s Wort against Zoloft. St. John’s Wort fully cured 24 percent of the depressed people who received it, and Zoloft cured 25 percent — but the placebo fully cured 32 percent.
As the number of doctor visits for depression rose from 14 million in 1987 to almost 25 million last year, medications were prescribed for nine in 10 patients, according to research published last weekÖ Randall Stafford, the Stanford University physician who conducted the study on doctor visits, found that less than one-third of them in 2001 were to psychiatrists and two-thirds of them were to primary care physicians.

// personality and emotional intelligence

Miller (1973) describes all five approaches to religion (as viewed through the lens of a level in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) are “legitimate, but each will seem ridiculous when viewed from above or sterile when viewed from below” (Miller, 1973).

APA Paper: Emotional Intelligence: popular or scientific psychology (September 1999)

“Salovey and Mayer estimate that it (emotional intelligence) accounts for as little as 5 percent of an average person’s occupational achievement“

In the psychological literature over the last 30 years, there have been 54,040 abstracts’ containing the keyword “depression,” 41,416 naming “anxiety,” but only 415 mentioning “joy.”

“I personally think we developed language because of our deep need to complain,” said Lily Tomlin

// performance and work

As cited in the Corporate Leadership Council’s
report Contrarian Thinking on the Impact of Pay for
Performance: The authors of a recent McKinsey Quarterly
article argue that strong performance-based incentives may
motivate employees to focus exclusively on current business
objectives, potentially undermining employees’
identification and development of new business ideas to
fuel future growth. The authors observe that, given the
relative ease of measuring current employee performance,
organizations typically offer more substantial incentives
for performance against current goals and weaker incentives
for fostering innovative ideas, thereby encouraging
employees to deemphasize a longer-term focus. The authors
suggest that firms should instead balance incentives for
current performance and future-facing objectives.

The Council’s 2002 quantitative analysis of performance
management strategies, Building the High-Performance
Workforce, suggests an additional cautionary note on
performance-based pay, finding that sizeable financial
rewards often have a smaller-than-anticipated impact on
employee performance.

“(S)imply put, the learning profession has done a por
job of building core competencies in quantifying the
financial value and impact of most performance improvement
effort” (Taylor, 2002).

52% of all innovative projects fail and 31% percent of
these projects are canceled before producing a single
deliverable (Kapur, 1997).

More than half of top management-driven “corporate
transformation” projects do not survive the initial
phases (Senge et. al., 1999).

According to respected business consultant and author
Jim Collins, “A company can fundamentally change what
it is… The flip side is that we found only 11 out of
1435 companies that had done it” (Cone, 2002).

In a review of re-engineering efforts implemented at
nearly 3,000 hospitals, 88 percent realized no significant
benefits. However, the remaining 12 percent achieved a 10%
cost improvement (Walston, Bogue and Schwartz, 1999).

According to re-engineering guru Michael Hammer,
“(W)inning does not depend on a clever plan or hot concept.
It depends on how regular, mundane, basic work is carried
out… Relentless operational innovation is the only
way to establish a lasting advantage.”

“Deviance is the source of all innovation… (it)
always manifest itself first on the Fringe, where the lone
deviant is the only one interested in communicating it”
(Matthews and Wacker, 2002).

“When the going gets weird, the weird turn pro.” –
Hunter S. Thompson

// technology

“On average, professional coders make 100 to 150 errors
in every thousand lines of code they write, according to a
multiyear study of 13,000 programs by Humphrey of Carnegie
Mellon” and although “(s)ystems testing goes on for about
half the process… and even when they finally get it
to work, there’s still no design” (Mann, 2002).

“In the last 15 years alone, software defects have
wrecked a ($500 billion) European satellite launch, delayed
the opening of the hugely expensive Denver airport for a
year, destroyed a NASA Mars mission, killed four marines in
a helicopter crash, induced a U.S. Navy ship to destroy a
civilian airliner and shut down ambulance systems in
London, leading to as many as 30 deaths” while the I Love
You virus enabled by Microsoft’s decision to allow
Outlook to easily run programs in e-mail attachments cost
$8.74 billion according to consulting firm Computer
Economics (Mann, 2002).

“According to a study by the Standish Group…
software projects often devote 80 percent of their budgets
to repairing flaws they themselves produced—a figure
that does not include the even more costly process of
furnishing product support and development patches for
problems found after the release” (Mann, 2002).

// communities

“All business problems are, in fact, cultural problems”
(Matthews and Wacker, 2002).

According to Nancy Etcoff, clinical instructor in
psychology at Harvard Medical School, “By 2020, depression
is predicted to be second only to ischemic heart disease as
the world’s leading cause of disability” (page 80 of
the June 2002 issue of Wired).

Employees who have better interpersonal relationships
are more efficient that teams of uncooperative workers who
with superior technical skills (Fest, 2001).

Research lead by Roy F. Baumeister, Ph.D., of Case
Western Reserve University, demonstrates that
“interpersonal rejection can dramatically reduce the
capacity for intelligent thought, raising the possibility
that reasoning skills evolved to help us navigate the
complexities of social life rather than help us solve
technical problems” (Poultney, 2002).

Findings from a related study, led by Jean M. Twenge,
Ph.D., of San Diego State University in California, suggest
that “socially excluded individuals are so busy trying to
suppress emotional distress that they are unable to engage
in controlled thinking, leaving only automatic processes
unaffected” (Poultney, 2002).

“Emotional intelligence gives you a competitive edge.
Even at Bell Labs, where everyone is smart, studies find
that the most valued and productive engineers are those
with the traits of emotional intelligence — not
necessarily the highest IQ” (Goleman, 1995).

Research at Emory University demonstrates that dopamine
levels tend to increase in individuals participating in
cooperative behavior. This suggests that humans are
naturally predisposed towards cooperative behavior
(Rilling, et. al., 2002).

Researchers from the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Brookhaven National Laboratory, the State University of New
York at Stony Brook and the University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine have found reduction in dopamine
receptors in the brain that may underlie the cognitive
deterioration (particularly regarding attention span,
impulse control and mood) associated with aging (January
2000 issue of The American Journal of Psychiatry).

// motivation

“Real achievement means inevitably a worthy and virtuous
task. To do some idiotic job very well is certainly not
real achievement” (Maslow, 1998).

Miller (1973) describes all five approaches to religion
(as viewed through the lens of a level in Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs) are “legitimate, but each will seem
ridiculous when viewed from above or sterile when viewed
from below” (Miller, 1973).

Psychological researcher Frederick Herzberg (cited in
Accel-Team, 2001) refers to traditional carrot-and-stick
motivational approaches as KITA (short for “kick in the
pants”). Herzberg’s research showed that these
methods do not work except in short-term situations and are
detrimental to the relationships between managers and
employees and to the relationships between
“star” performers and non-rewarded peers. As
Alfie Kohn remarked, “Between the legendary carrot and the
stick stands a jackass” (cited in Scholtes, 1998).

Herzberg observed that “the things people said
positively about their job experiences were not the
opposite of what they said negatively about their job
experiences; the reverse of the factors that seemed to make
people happy in jobs did not make them unhappy.” As a
result, he distinguished between hygiene (factors which if
not sufficiently present result in negative impacts to
performance) and motivators (factors which positively
impact performance).

Overall, Herzberg found that the primary motivator for
most people is the work itself while the primary hygiene
factors are the way people are treated (cited in Ratzburg,
1971). In other words, if an employee’s talents,
interests and goals are consistent with the work that he or
she does, he or she is likely to be happy and productive.
This alignment of personal welfare with work performed is
more predictive of an employee’s success than his or
her receipt of rewards or incentives.

Findings of more than 130 research studies suggest that
people with an internal locus of control perform better at
work, exhibit more initiative, are more cognitively active,
are more eager to learn, respond to failure in more
appropriate ways and more successful than those with an
external locus of control (Laborde, 2001).

// 360 feedback

While nearly 60% of all U.S.-based companies of 500+
employees utilize some form of 360-degree feedback, an
ongoing study of 750 large, public companies found that
360-degree feedback programs were associated with a 10.6
percent decrease in shareholder value (Pfau et. al.,
2002).

Another recent survey demonstrates that 50% feel the
processes are expensive and time-consuming and 45% felt
that raters were too threatened to provide honest feedback
through these processes. Feedback often leads to reduced
performance even if the feedback is positive. Comparative
data (relative to peers) often leads to particularly
difficult situations (Corporate Leadership Council,
2002).

The failure of 360-degree feedback may lie not in the
feedback itself but in the utilization of that feedback. A
recent study conducted by McKinsey questions the
effectiveness of pay-for-performance strategies and
suggests that these methods often weaken employee focus on
long-range goals, innovation and exploration.

“When overloaded with work or life responsibilities,
people are sometimes unable to take in disturbing feedback
and become defensive… Someone with low emotional
intelligence and problems getting along with others
isn’t likely to get feedback in the course of
everyday life… People who feel victimized by
feedback are more likely to spread their negativity to
those they believe are responsible.” (Wimer, 2002).

Kruger and Dunning (1999) found that incompetent people
assessed themselves as being highly competent. This lack of
ability to self-assess may be due to a combination of
internal (poor metacognition) and external factors (poor
ability to compare oneself to others).

The bottom line: 360-degree feedback strategies are not
a panacea; some individuals will be thrilled with the
process and benefit greatly while others will see only
negative results. Therefore, it is important to avoid
“all-or-nothing” decisions regarding the
implementation and continuation of these programs. The most
important key to success in using performance management
strategies to drive business results is the ability to
effectively evaluate, customize and reinforce methods that
benefit unique needs of individuals.

// references

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2002 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_05_herzberg.html
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http://www.accel-team.com/pygmalion/index.html
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